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Estonian Vocabulary
Germanic languages
The heaviest external contribution, nearly one third of the vocabulary, comes from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 2225 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.
Ex nihilo lexical enrichment
Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s90s) tried to use formation ex nihilo, Urschpfung, i.e. they created new words out of nothing. Examples are Ado Grenzstein’s coinages kabe raughts, chequers and male hess.
The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik (18801973), also used creations ex nihilo (cf. ree constructions, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf. Saareste and Raun 1965: 76). Aavik belonged to the so-called Noor-Eesti (oung Estonia) movement, which appeared in Tartu, a university town in south-eastern Estonia, around 1905 (for discussion, see Raun 1991). In Aavik dictionary (1921), which lists approximately 4000 words, there are many words which were (allegedly) created ex nihilo. Consider ese bject, kolp kull, liibuma o cling, naasma o return, come back, nme tupid, dull, range trict, reetma o betray, solge lim, flexible, graceful (which did not gain currency, cf. Contemporary Estonian graatsiline raceful, although the word itself, interestingly, is used for a certain kind of parasitic worm, namely the Ascaris lumbricoides), and veenma o convince. Other Aavikisms ex nihilo (not appearing in Aavik 1921) include nentima o admit, state, nrdima o grow indignant, sme onscience, and tik act.”
Note, however, that many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ex nihilo could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish. Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French. Consider relv eapon versus English revolver, roim rime versus English crime, siiras incere versus English sincere/serious embama o embrace versus English embrace, and taunima o condemn, disapprove versus Finnish tuomita o judge (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik 1921 dictionary). Consider also evima o have, possess, own (cf. also Estonian omama o own, and mul on, lit. o me is, i.e. or me there is, meaning have) versus English have; laup orehead versus Russian lob orehead; mrv urder and mrvama o murder versus English murder (these Aavikisms do not appear in Aavik 1921); and laip orpse versus German Leib ody and German Leiche ody, corpse. These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item. The often irregular and arbitrary sound changes could then be explained not as subconscious foreign influence but rather as conscious manipulation by the coiner. Aavik seems to have paid little attention to the origin of his neologisms. On occasion, he replaced existing native words or expressions with neologisms of foreign descent. Therefore, Aavik cannot be considered a purist in the traditional sense, i.e. he was not nti-foreignisms/loanwords as such.
Table of word production
Proposed origin
No. of word roots
Period
Examples
Nostratic (hypothetical, highly controversial)
130?
… 10 000 BC
m(in)a ‘I’, s(in)a ‘thou’, vesi ‘water’, tabama ‘to catch, seize, capture, hit’, arbuma ‘to magic, charm’, puur ‘auger’, poeg ‘son’, pkk ‘ball of the foot’, keel ‘tongue’, pelgama ‘to be afraid, fear’, sva ‘deep-seated, profound’, vedama ‘to pull, draw, drag, carry, drive’, ks ‘one’, nimi ‘name’, too ‘that’, kes ‘who’
Uralic
120
50004000 BC
ala ‘under, sub’, la ‘upper, top’, esi ‘front’, taga ‘behind’; see ‘this, it’, mis ‘what’, ei ‘no’; minema ‘to go’, tulema ‘to come’, tundma ‘to feel’, ujuma ‘to swim’, pelgama ‘to be afraid, fear’, kaduma ‘to disappear’, mskma ‘to wash’; puu ‘tree’, kuusk ‘spruce, fir(-tree)’, kiv ‘birch’, murakas ‘cloudberry’, suvi ‘summer’, pev ‘day’, kaja ‘echo’, kuu ‘moon, Luna’, lumi ‘snow’, soo ‘marsh, bog, swamp’, juga ‘jet; falls, waterfall’, kala ‘fish’, k ‘snake; blindworm’, sisalik ‘lizard’; keel ‘tongue; language’, krv ‘ear’, luu ‘bone’, maks ‘liver’, plv ‘knee’, psk ‘cheek’, silm ‘eye’, muna ‘egg’, neelama ‘to swallow’, pala ‘piece’, sulg ‘feather’, tuli ‘fire’, ssi ‘ember(s), coal’, suusk ‘ski’, nool ‘arrow’, sudma ‘to row’, punuma ‘to knit’, vask ‘copper’, v ‘belt, girdle’; elama ‘to live; to dwell’, koolma ‘to die, pass away, decease’, vgi ‘power, vigour, strength, might, force’, sala ‘secretly’, naine ‘woman’; kaks ‘two’, viis ‘five’
Finno-Ugric
270
40003000 BC
aju ‘brain’, di ‘marrow’, hing ‘soul’, pea ‘head’, pii ‘tooth’, sapp ‘gall, bile’, vats ‘belly, stomach’; aru ‘sense, reason’, j ‘ice’, koit ‘dawn, daybreak, Aurora’, voor ‘drumlin’, paju ‘willow’, pihl ‘rowan’, kask ‘birch’, mari ‘berry’, pohl ‘cowberry’, kamar ‘rind’, rebane ‘fox’, nugis ‘marten’, siil ‘hedgehog’, utt ‘ewe’, hiir ‘mouse’, p ‘grouse’, mtus ‘capercaillie’, vares ‘crow’, psuke ‘swallow’, sga ‘catfish’, sinas ‘ide’, srg ‘roach’, ti ‘louse’, kusilane ‘ant’, koi ‘moth, bug’; koda ‘house, hall’, kla ‘village’; plema ‘burn, blaze’, kdema ‘burn, heat’, pada ‘pot’, leem ‘soup, broth, brew’, vi ‘butter’, vits ‘knife’, vestma ‘carve’, sau ‘clay; stock for walking’; sba ‘robe’; kolm ‘three’, neli ‘four’, kuus ‘six’; nid ‘witch’, ise ‘self’, ilm ‘weather, air’; talv ‘winter’, sgis ‘autumn’, iga ‘age’; isa ‘father’, poeg ‘son’, kdi ‘brother-in-law’, kond ‘-hood’; valge ‘white’, hahk ‘gray; eider’, uus ‘new’, sepp ‘blacksmith’
Finno-Permic
50140
25001500 BC
kht ‘stomach’, kri ‘throat’, sr ‘leg, shank’, koobas ‘cave’, prm ‘dust, earth’, snnik ‘dung’, peda(jas) ‘pine tree’, kuslapuu ‘honeysuckle’, oks ‘branch’, phkel ‘nut’, kiud ‘fiber’, peni ‘dog’, orav ‘squirrel’, kotkas ‘eagle’; rehi ‘threshing barn’, kuduma ‘to weave, to knit’, amb ‘crossbow’, mla ‘oar, paddle’, ng ‘angle’, i ‘father-in-law’, ike ‘thunder’, parem ‘right, better’, vana ‘old’; luna ‘south, midday’, meel ‘mind’
Finno-Volgaic
100150
15001000 BC
selg ‘back’, koon ‘snout’, kpp ‘paw’, vaim ‘spirit’; kevad ‘spring’, tht ‘star’, jrv ‘lake’, haab ‘aspen’, saar ‘ash tree’, tamm ‘oak’, vaher ‘maple’, sarapuu ‘hazel’, lg ‘straw’, lehm ‘cow’, siga ‘pig’, pett ‘buttermilk’, jahvatama to grind’, kurg ‘crane, stork’, kurvits ‘sandpiper’, parm ‘horse fly’, ssk ‘midge’; keema ‘to boil’, hiilgama ‘to glow, to gleam’, kis ‘sleeve’, piir ‘border’; vene ‘boat’; lell ‘uncle, father’s brother’; jumal ‘god’; aher ‘barren’, jahe ‘cool’, kva ‘hard’, sva ‘deep’; kargama ‘to jump’, pesema ‘to wash’, psima ‘to stay, to remain’, lpsma ‘to milk’
Finno-Lappic
130150
1000500 BC
vihm ‘rain’, sammal ‘moss’, org ‘valley’, vili ‘grain, fruit’, psas ‘bush’, pud ‘draught’, nn ‘happiness, fortune’, veli ‘brother’, ime ‘miracle’, luule ‘poetry’, taga ‘back, behind’, tsi ‘truth’,nlg ‘hunger’, kll ‘surely’
Baltic-Finnic
600800
500 BC 800 AD
pder ‘elk’, oja ‘stream’, udu ‘fog’, hobu ‘horse’, mnd ‘pine tree’; kne ‘talk, speech’, sna ‘word’; aeg ‘time’, eile ‘yesterday’; laps ‘child’, rahvas ‘people’, linn ‘town’; nuga ‘knife’, king ‘shoe’; julge ‘bold’
Estonian and unknown
appr. 1000
rni ‘silicium’, roie ‘rib’, salk ‘bunch’, videvik ‘twilight’, jrak ‘gorge, valley’, ila ‘saliva’, aas ‘meadow’, lubi ‘lime’, lhn ‘smell’, kaan ‘leech’, kesv ‘barley’, rp ‘cloak’, hiili- ‘to sneak’, mahe ‘sweet, gentle’, mru ‘bitter’, raip ‘carrion’, roni- ‘to climb’ + numerous onomatopoetic-descriptive words
Artificial
5060
veenma ‘to persuade, convince’, roim ‘crime’ (probably derived from the English ‘crime’), laip ‘dead body, corpse’ (probably derived from the German ‘Leib’), kolp ‘scull’, relv ‘weapon, arm’, ese ‘thing’, sme ‘conscience; scruple’, mrv ‘murder’ (probably derived from the German ‘Mord’), ulm ‘dream’, siiras ‘sincere, candid’, range ‘rigorous, stern, severe, austere, strict, inexorable, relentless’ (? German ‘streng’, Swedish ‘strng’), sulnis ‘sweet, meek, mild’, nme ‘silly’, taunima ‘to disapprove, deprecate, deplore’, naasma ‘to return’, reetma ‘to betray’ (probably from the German ‘(ver)raten’), embama ‘to embrace’; eirama ‘to ignore’, eramu ‘private house’, etlema ‘to perform’, klar ‘loudspeaker’, klmik ‘refrigerator’, meede ‘measure’, meene ‘souvenir’, siirdama ‘to transplant’, teave ‘information’, teismeline ‘teenager’, teler ‘TV set’, llitis ‘publication’, randama, levima, sva(muusika), taies ‘piece of art’, rula ‘skateboard’
Proto-Indo-European loans (hypothetical)
appr. 50
50003000 BC
higi ‘sweat’, huul ‘lip’, koib ‘leg’, krv ‘ear’, kube ‘groin’, klg ‘side’, liha ‘meat’, lug ‘chin’, nahk ‘skin, leather’, rind ‘breast’, selg ‘back’; mgi ‘hill, mountain’, mets ‘forest’, neem ‘cape’, nmm ‘moor’, oja ‘stream’, org ‘valley’, saar ‘island’, soo ‘bog’; ahven ‘perch’, haug ‘pike’, koger ‘crucian carp’, koha ‘pike-perch’, rbis ‘vendace’, siig ‘whitefish’, vimb ‘vimba bream’, jnes ‘hare’, konn ‘frog’; helmes ‘bead’
Indo-European and Indo-Iranian loans
2045
30001000 BC
mesi ‘honey’, sool ‘salt’, osa ‘part’, sada ‘hundred’, prsas ‘piglet’, varss ‘calf’, sarv ‘horn’, puhas ‘clean’, vasar ‘hammer’
Proto-Baltic and Baltic loans
100150
1500500 BC
hammas ‘tooth’, hani ‘goose’, hein ‘hay’, hernes ‘pea’, him ‘tribe’, oinas ‘weather’, puder ‘porridge’, prgu ‘hell’, ratas ‘wheel’, seeme ‘seed’, sein ‘wall’, mets ‘wood’, luht ‘waterside meadow’, sber ‘friend’, tuhat ‘thousand’, vagu ‘furrow’, regi ‘sledge’, vill ‘wool’, veel ‘more, still’, kael ‘neck’, kirves ‘axe’, laisk ‘lazy’
Proto-Germanic and Germanic loans
380
2000 BC 13th century
agan, ader ‘plough’, humal, kana ‘hen’, kaer ‘oats’, rukis ‘rye’, lammas ‘sheep’, leib ‘bread’, pld ‘field’; aer ‘oar’, mrd ‘fish trap’, laev ‘ship’, noot ‘seine, sweep net’, puri ‘sail’; kuld ‘gold’, raud ‘iron’, tina ‘tin’; sukk ‘stocking’, katel ‘kettle’, knal ‘candle’, taigen ‘dough’; kuningas ‘king’, laen ‘loan’, luna ‘ransom, bail’, raha ‘money’, rikas ‘rich’, vald ‘parish, community’; kalju ‘rock’, kallas ‘shore’, rand ‘coast’; armas ‘dear’, taud ‘disease’, kaunis ‘beautiful’, ja ‘and’
Old Slavic loans
5075
10th13th century
aken ‘window’, sahk ‘plough’, sirp ‘sickle’, turg ‘market’, teng(elpung) ‘money’, pagan ‘heathen’, papp ‘priest’, raamat ‘book’, rist ‘cross’, kasukas ‘fur coat’
Proto-Latvian loans
40
6th7th century
kanep ‘hemp’, lts ‘lentil’, magun ‘poppy’, udras ‘otter’, kuts ‘tomcat’, palakas ‘sheet’, lupard ‘rag’, harima ‘cultivate, educate, clean’, kukkel ‘bun’, vanik ‘garland’, laabuma ‘to thrive’, kauss ‘bowl’, mulk ‘inhabitant of Viljandi county’, pastel ‘leather slipper’
Low Saxon loans
750
12th16th century
kool ‘school’,neer ‘kidney’, ribi ‘rib’; kruus ‘gravel’, torm ‘storm’;’ krvits ‘pumpkin’, peet ‘beet’, salat ‘salad’, petersell ‘parsley’, mnt ‘coin’, kmen ‘caraway, cumin’, loorber ‘laurel’, palm ‘palm (tree)’, tamm ‘dam’, roos ‘rose’, ploom ‘plum’; hunt ‘wolf; hound’, kk ‘kitchen’, kruubid ‘groat’, kringel ‘kringle, type of pastry’, pannkook ‘pancake’, pekk ‘lard’, prantssai ‘type of pastry’, slt ‘brawn’, vorst ‘sausage’, li ‘oil’, trklis ‘starch’, pruukost ‘breakfast’, kruus ‘mug’, pann ‘pan’, ptt ‘barrel’, korv ‘basket’, lhker ‘bota’, toober ‘tub’, tiik ‘pond’, lamp ‘lamp’, lhter ‘chandelier’; krid ‘scissors’, teljed ‘looms’, vokk ‘spinning wheel’, luend ‘canvas’, samet ‘velvet’, siid ‘silk’, vilt ‘felt’, kuub ‘coat’, krt ‘skirt’, loor ‘veil’, mts ‘cap’, muda ‘mud’, mantel ‘coat’, pksid ‘pants, trousers’, vammus ‘coat’, np ‘button’; hoov ‘courtyard’, hrber ‘mansion’, kelder ‘cellar’, kemmerg ‘toilet’, korsten ‘chimney’, ruum ‘room’, saal ‘hall’, tall ‘stables’, haamer ‘hammer’, hing ‘hinge’, hvel ‘planer’, kellu ‘trowel’, kapp ‘cupboard’, pink ‘bench’, tool ‘stool’, trepp ‘stairs’, vall ‘wall, ridge’, vlv ‘vault’; jaht ‘hunt’, jger ‘hunter, hunt mnager, game warden’, kants ‘stronghold’, ktt ‘hunter’, laager ‘camp’, lahing ‘battle’, piir ‘border’, pss ‘gun, rifle’, tk ‘bayonet’, vaht ‘watch’; altar ‘altar’, ingel ‘angel’, jnger ‘disciple’, psalm ‘psalm’, prohvet ‘prophet’, salm ‘verse’, preester ‘priest’, troost ‘consolation’, pihtima ‘to confess’, vrmnder ‘church warden, beadle’, piiskop ‘bishop’, sant ‘beggar, cripple’; preili ‘miss, maiden’, memm ‘old woman’, mats ‘boor, hick’, hrra ‘gentleman’, proua ‘lady’, kelm ‘dodger, rascal, cheat’, narr ‘joker, fool’, naaber ‘neighbour’, kuller ‘courrier’, laat ‘fair, market’, selts ‘society, club’, krahv ‘count’, saks ‘German, nobleman’, arst ‘doctor’, plaaster ‘tape, plaster’; hangeldama ‘smuggle’, krima ‘scour’, tingima ‘to bargain’, kortel ‘quartern’, matt ‘a measure’, toll ‘inch’, vaagima ‘to weigh’, viht ‘weight’, r ‘rent’, paar ‘pair’, piik ‘spike, lance’, tosin ‘dozen’, veerand ‘quarter’; nrid ‘new year’, reede ‘Friday’, tund ‘hour’, vastlad ‘shrovetide’; ankur ‘anchor’, kiil ‘keel’, tr ‘steer’, praam ‘pram, ferry’, madrus ‘sailor’, pootsman ‘boatswain’, kotermann ‘ship gremlin’, loots ‘pilot’, kipper ‘skipper’; kaart ‘map, card’, kunst ‘art’, maaler ‘painter’, maalima ‘to paint’, paber ‘paper’, trkkima ‘to print’, uurima ‘to search, study, survey’, trumm ‘drum’, tantsima ‘to dance’, piip ‘pipe’, vilepill ‘whistle’, pasun ‘horn, trumpet’; just ‘just, namely’, topelt ‘double’, vrt ‘valuable’
Swedish loans
140
13th17th century
kratt ‘stealing demon’, kroonu ‘army, government’, kuunar ‘schooner’, pagar ‘baker’, nkk ‘mermaid, nix’, plasku ‘flask’, plika ‘girl’, tasku ‘pocket’, rim ‘herring’, tnder ‘barrel’, moor ‘old woman’, puldan, tont ‘ghost, demon’
Russian loans
350
14th20th century
kapsas, tatar, puravik, riisikas, sihvka, kiisu, suslik, kulu, prussakas, tarakan, naarits, soobel, uss; noos, moiva, vobla, mutt; kamorka, putka, sara, lobudik, trahter, koiku, nari, pruss, tkat; hlst, kamass, kirsa, kombinesoon, kott, puhvaika, marli, pintsak, retuusid, trussikud; kiisel, pontik, rosolje, rupskid, bor, uhhaa, morss, samagon; batoon, kissell, plombiir, povidlo, alkk, uhhaa; plotski, mahorka, pabeross; mannerg, kopsik; nuut, kantsik, piits, tupik, relss, jaam; kabi, knopka; kasakas, kasarmu, karauul, katelok, kiiver, munder, nekrut, pagun, polk, ranits, sinel, tentsik, utsitama, timukas, rajoon, trm, pops, artell; palakas, haltuura, parseldama, parisnik, siva, tolk, tots, pujn, kitt, tuur, ladna, prosta, sutike; kaanima, kostitama, kruttima, kupeldama
(High) German loans
500
16th20th century
larhv, lokk, seitel; kastan, pappel, kirss, jasmiin, jorjen, kartul, tulp, vihk; ahv, auster, kalkun, siisike, miisu, mops, taks, kits, vau, viidikas, nepp, pistrik; klimp, klops, kotlet, kompvek, supp, tort, viiner, soust, vahvel, vrts, vein; jope, kittel, kampsun, kleit, vest, lips, vrvel, sall, pluus; kamin, pliit, kr(kamber), sahver, latter, kabel, palat; pult, sohva, leen, kummut, kardin, sahtel; uur, klade, klamber, latern, sihverplaat, silt; opman, oober, tisler, tudeng, velsker, virtin, antvrk, aadlik, krner, kilter, kutsar, lrm, oksjon, krempel, klat; krehvtine, hull, liiderlik, napp, noobel, ontlik, plass, tumm, trammis; kleepima, klantsima, mehkeldama, sehkendama, rehkendama, trimpama, pummeldama, praalima, turnima; ahoi, proosit, hurraa, hopp, hallo
Finnish loans
90
19th20th century
aare, sangar, harras, jenka, julm, jik, snge, tehas, uljas, vaist, vihjama, silima, kuvama, haihtuma, anastama
Hebrew loans
< 5
jaana(lind) ‘ostrich’, tohuvabohu ‘chaos’
Romani loans
<5
manguma ‘to beg’
References
^ Liin, Helgi 1968. Alamsaksa laensnadest 16. ja 17. sajandi eesti kirjakeeles. Emakeele Seltsi aastaraamat 13, 1967. Tallinn: Eesti Raamat, 4770 (Estonian)
^ History of Estonian vocabulary (Estonian)
^ a b c See p. 149 in Zuckermann, Ghil’ad 2003, Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X.
^ See p. 150 in Zuckermann, Ghil’ad 2003, Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X.
Categories: Estonian language | Vocabulary
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